Ed 714 Qualitative Research Methods in Education
Spring/Summer 2001
Copyright - Antonia D'Onofrio - 2000/2001
 
 

Grounded theory is an inductive approach in the extreme. Its use depends on the collection of information from multiple sources and multiple perspectives on a problem. The primary focus of grounded theory research should be on dynamic, interpersonal transactions that define a social context. These social processes are believed to shape human behavior. When participants in a study are asked to reflect on these processes and their resultant effect on behavior, the aim of the research becomes that of discovering the meaning of situated experience. As inductive theory, grounded theory makes no distinction between theory and design. In fact the theory is a guide to design. It also is an approach for evoking a theory about context from data, as opposed to imposing a pre ordinate theory upon evidence.

 

 

The approach uses many of the techniques of formal ethnographic research: for example, interviews, participant observation, and the collection and analysis of social texts. It differs from ethnography insofar as the approach examines problems that are framed in social settings that are far less extensive than entire cultures would be. Thus examinations of cultural meanings in academic departments, schools and classrooms, offices, corporations, local settings, and the like, are amenable to this approach.

 

 

The techniques of grounded theory differ from those of conventional social science research. A literature review is done. However, it is not used to find a theoretical model, ready made in the work of other researchers that will be used to make design choices. Rather the literature review is conducted continuously and simultaneously with the act of doing research. This permits a review of technical choices available to a researcher-- perhaps one will decide to rethink the direction f interview questions or seek out additional samples of respondents because the literature raises additional issues.

 

 

Sampling is limited to individuals who are members of a setting and who have experienced the research problem first hand. Sampling is purposive. One makes an effort to seek out those with credible and authentic experiences. One focuses on whose voices will tell a representative and complete story. One might seek out deviant cases along with centrally positioned respondents in order to create a multifaceted sense to the story of a place.

 

 

Descriptive language is used, and normative language avoided, so that the entire reflective effort of a researcher is available to a reader. This should be narrative that traces out the decisions made about method and the logic followed from sampling to analysis to interpretation.

 

 

Data is subjected to the constant comparative methods of analysis. That is it is continuously compared and contrasted in order to discover emergent themes as well as interesting patterns that demonstrate when common perspectives are shared and how unique points of view are also in place.

 

 

The Pandit article The Creation of Theory is an interesting text to use as a working example.

Pandit proposed a number of conditions that he believed were responsible for successful change in corporations, which had undergone significant economic distress.

 

 

Pandit demonstrates how technical literature is reviewed to refine research questions and to develop concepts and assumptions. He shows how theoretically important cases were selected so that substantive information about the setting and its travails would be accessible. He describes the development of a database through the use of multiple sources of data and multiple methods of data collection, arguing that this will ground his study in a network of information and ultimately will improve both accuracy and construct validity. Pandit further describes how he allows data analysis and data collection to be overlapping. In this way emergent themes and patterns can be permitted to refine definitions of concepts and new questions can be pursued. Pandit illustrates how open, selective and axial coding are all used to integrate data and develop connections between patterns and themes. Finally he describes how saturation determines the end of data analysis.

 

 

Pandit returns to his original propositions and compares them with two conceptual frameworks. One is the framework that emerges from the data after data analysis. The other is the framework suggested by the literature. He concludes his study by demonstrated how his original propositions concur and deviate in some way with data and with theory. This allows him to describe how his original thinking must be revised (compared to emergent themes in data) and how the literature and theory need to be rethought.

Creating a conceptual model
 
 
 

Marshall and Rossman have developed a useful outline to follow for thinking through the earliest stages of conceptual development.
 

What is your broad research question?

What do you know from personal experience?

What have you learned from the experiences of credible authorities (clinical, practical, etc.)?

What have you gleaned from theoretical and empirical literature on the subject?

What are the core ideas and key concepts that emerge from an integration of these sources of knowledge?

How can these ideas and concepts be synthesized? Describe how they are interconnected.

What new questions emerge from this reflective analysis?

 Thinking ahead toward methods…..

• What types of data will answer these questions? What multiple sources can you mine for this information?
  
  

• What approach to sampling do you anticipate will help answer the questions?

Application
 

Here is one working example in which a theoretical model was mapped out.  Of course after mapping one has to write an extensive narrative describing what it all means.

Problem:  What emergent concerns might be important in the experiences of individuals who engage in online learning for the first time?
 
 
 

Personal Knowledge - What I have experienced Collaboration is a natural response when peers need help. Concise instruction works best. Entry level skill level matters. Comfort with technology is essential. Learning styles may cramp success with online. Cultural constraints may work. Against online instruction. Language constraints are significant barriers to success

Expert Knowledge - What experienced and skilled eyewitnesses have experienced The needs of individuals for various types of instructional support differ. The early stages of instruction require greater attention to. technical support. The experiences of practitioners are most helpful when available on a day to day basis - for coaching and tutoring.

Theoretical/ Empirical Knowledge- What can be found in the literature as authored by academic scholars The text of online instruction needs to be extremely specific and tailored to the needs of individuals. Text needs to be explicit and concise. Students need immediate feedback.

How do we create a working theory from this knowledge? We need to synthesize  this information.  We do that by discovering patterns that cut across all three sources of knowledge.  These might be:

 

 

Collaboration

Quality of Communication

Required level of technical proficiency

Being engaged online from beginning to end.

 

 

These would be the building blocks.

 

 

Next we would define each pattern in detail, relying on all three sources of knowledge.
 

We would tease out a number of assumptions that we appear to be making about the problem and the people in the problem.

Then we would write about the connections.  How are the concepts connected and how are the assumptions connected?

We would  disclose our writing and experience with respondents in the field to see if they recognize their experience in our account of their perspectives and activities.

At this point a number of questions should begin to emerge.  These are our starting points for design.

We make decisions about cases, samples, types of data, and how we will go about collecting our information.